Hot topics

In this year of Darwin celebrations we thought it might be fun to look a bit more closely at some of the other major players in the debate in the years immediately after the presentation of the theory of evolution through natural selection.

According to the Linnean Society website, the meeting in 1858 at which the Darwin and Wallace papers were first presented was something of a non-event: neither of the authors was present and the papers were read by the Secretary of the Society at the end of a long session. To quote the Linnean Society website “It is doubtful that many in the audience were able to take in the full import of the message they contained”.

However, in subsequent months, years and now centuries, the debate initiated by the ideas which Darwin and Wallace had formulated independently of each other has continued, often acrimoniously. Richard Owen, a brilliant comparative anatomist famous for naming the dinosaurs, was one of the most outspoken early opponents of the idea of evolution through natural selection whilst another eminent scientist, Thomas Henry Huxley, famously argued in its favour at the 1860 meeting of the British Association.

Below is a small selection of websites catalogued in Intute which put the evolution debate into a historical context and give some biographical information about the major protagonists.

General historical context

Linnean Society of London
Website of the Linnean Society, London. The society was founded in 1788 with the aim of the cultivation of the science of natural history in all its branches. Today the society encourages debate, research and publications in natural history and maintains its historical collections. The site provides information about the society’s activities and publications, including its series of journals and symposia. There is also a Web publications section which contains online publications relating to the history and science of the Linnean Society. There is information about the library and its collections, which include taxonomy, systematics, flora and fauna, as well as evolution and the history of biology. Additionally, there are short biographies of Carl Linnaeus, Darwin and Wallace, and Sir James Edward Smith and details of Project Linnaeus which seeks to make available in electronic format the entire correspondence of Carl Linnaeus. The site also provides links to the Society’s online collections of specimens and manuscripts as well as to its Library catalogue.
http:/www.linnean.org/

A history of evolutionary thought
From UCMP (University of California Museum of Paleontology), this website offers biographic information on the people who have influenced our current understanding of evolutionary theory. Information is divided into several chronological categories: ‘founders of natural science’, ‘great naturalists of the 18th century’, ‘preludes to evolution’, ‘natural selection’ and ‘the modern synthesis’. Several significant scientists are profiled in each section, these include Aristotle, Leonardo da Vinci, Carolus Linnaeus, Jean-Baptiste Lamarck, Mary Anning and Sir Richard Owen.
http:/www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/history/evothought.html

Natural history biographies
The Natural History Museum (London) has provided this Web page providing biographies of nine naturalists: Charles Darwin, Alfred Russel Wallace, Sir Hans Sloane, Joseph Banks, Richard Owen, Samuel Wilberforce, Thomas Huxley, William MacGillivray and Joseph Wolf. As well as the work of the naturalist, each biography is accompanied by a relevant timeline.
http:/www.nhm.ac.uk/nature-online/science-of-natural-history/biographies/i

Voyages of discovery / Natural History Museum (London)
Based on an exhibition at The Natural History Museum in London, this site explores the voyages of several pioneers in scientific expeditions, whose travels had a major impact on the science and culture of the societies they came from. Presented in a clear and entertaining manner, the site includes, for each voyage: a short profile of the explorer, a sketch map of the route travelled and examples of specimens collected and illustrations made. The explorers or naturalists covered include Darwin, Sloane, Wallace and Murray. A special section on Captain Cook’s first voyage provides a more in-depth text, with still illustrations and graphics.
http:/www.nhm.ac.uk/nature-online/science-of-natural-history/expeditions-c

Alfred Russel Wallace

Alfred Russel Wallace page
This extensive and well presented site contains information relating to Alfred Russel Wallace (1823-1913), the English naturalist, evolutionist and social critic. Resources available include a chronology of the main events in Wallace’s life, quotes from his writings, an extensive bibliography of his publications and a selected bibliography of writings about Wallace. Some of Wallace’s publications and transcripts from interviews are presented in full-text. There is also a news section and an FAQ. The site is maintained by Dr Charles H Smith, who can be contacted by email.
http:/www.wku.edu/~smithch/index1.htm

Wallace collection
Part of the website of the Natural History Museum, the Wallace Collection brings together a selection of digitised letters, notes, articles and some of the insect specimens which Alfred Russel Wallace collected on his travels. The introduction gives information about the whole collection of Wallace’s papers held in the Library of the NHM, and about Wallace’s contribution to understanding natural selection. Further sections go into greater detail about various aspects of Wallace’s life and work, and there is a search facility.
http:/www.nhm.ac.uk/nature-online/collections-at-the-museum/wallace-collec

On the law that has regulated the introduction of new species by Alfred Russel Wallace
The website of ‘Human nature review’ hosts an online version of the above paper written in 1855 by Alfred Russel Wallace. This law, often referred to as the Sarawack Law, looks at geographical and geological distributions of plants and animals, and the divergence of species. This essay is posted on a Web page that offers access to related works by other theorists, including Charles Darwin.
http:/www.human-nature.com/darwin/archive/wallace.html

On the tendency of varieties to depart indefinitely from the original type by Alfred Russel Wallace
Presented on the website of Human Nature Review, this is an essay written by Alfred Russel Wallace at Ternate, Indonesia in 1858. The essay introduces the concept of natural selection and was sent by the author to Charles Darwin, who himself had similar ideas on this subject. This site also hosts other works by both Wallace and Darwin.
http:/www.human-nature.com/darwin/archive/arwallace.html

Richard Owen

Dinosaur history
This resource introduces you to the people that contributed to the study and knowledge of dinosaurs throughout history. The accounts begin around 750 BC with Xenophanes who first recognised the existence of fossils, and proceeds through the centuries to 1899. Subsequent years have yet to be completed (as of August 2004). Other famous names featured in the history include Georges Cuvier, William Buckland and Richard Owen. These pages have been created by Professor John Chamberlain of Brooklyn College, City University of New York.
http:/academic.brooklyn.cuny.edu/geology/chamber/dinohist1.html

Paper dinosaurs, 1824 – 1969
The electronic catalogue of an exhibition on the history of dinosaur discovery, through some of the most significant printed materials published from 1824 to 1969, and including the original publications of Gideon Mantell, Richard Owen and Othniel Marsh among others. It provides a visual tour of over 150 illustrations of dinosaurs from papers presented at the exhibition. These quality images are accompanied by text descriptions and can be zoomed to full size whilst maintaining high resolution. The exhibition was presented by Linda Hall Library of science, engineering and technology in Kansas City, United States, and the online version was redesigned in 2009.
http:/www.lindahall.org/events_exhib/exhibit/exhibits/dino/

Thomas Henry Huxley

Thomas Henry Huxley (1825-1895)
This Web page presents a brief biography of Thomas Henry Huxley and his scientific thoughts. He was a strong supporter of Darwin’s theory of evolution in addition to being an eminent scientist himself. His main subjects of study were palaeontology and zoology. This essay is hosted on the website of the Museum of Paleontology at the University of California, Berkeley.
http:/www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/history/thuxley.html

Huxley file
This extensive website is dedicated to the life and work of Victorian biologist Thomas Henry Huxley (1825-1895), who is best known today for his support of Charles Darwin’s theory of evolution by natural selection. Resources available include; 680 pieces of published and unpublished text by Huxley; 148 pictures by and on him, with an uncounted number of pictures in text by and for him; and 120 commentaries on him. Huxley wrote on many topics including education, anthropology, philosophy, religion, social studies and style, as well as his works as a professional biologist. Indexes are provided for published texts, letters, commentaries on Huxley and illustrations by or relating to him. Some index entries are linked to the full-text of the item or the relevant images. In addition there are 21 guides to information on important subjects which Huxley dealt with, an extensive bibliography, a timeline of events in his life and a family tree. The layout of the site includes colour codings to identify different resource types. The site is an excellent starting point for researchers interested in Huxley and his life and work.
http:/aleph0.clarku.edu/huxley/

Rise and progress of palaeontology by Thomas Henry Huxley
This is an online version of The Rise and Progress of Palaeontology by Thomas Henry Huxley. Huxley was an eminent 19th century zoologist and palaeontologist, and a supporter of Charles Darwin’s theory of evolution. The essay discusses what fossils are and what they represent, and the emergence of palaeontology as a science. This text has been made available by Project Gutenberg, a producer of electronic books. It is requested that the user read the copyright and the conditions on the use of the text.
http:/www.gutenberg.org/dirs/etext01/2saht10.txt

Darwiniana / collection of essays by T. H. Huxley
As part of ‘The Huxley File’ created by Charles Blinderman and David Joyce, this section provides access to Huxley’s essays on the publication of ‘The Origin of Species’ by Charles Darwin. The essays also discuss the subsequent debate on evolution.
http:/aleph0.clarku.edu/huxley/CE2/index.html

Last month the World Medical Association revised the Declaration of Helsinki, the cornerstone for the protection of human research subjects around the world. The revisions are focussed on clinical trials taking place in developing countries, and call for registration of all clinical trials, the use of placebos, and the greater benefits after the trial for participants.

The issues of truly informed consent, and the role of poverty and absence of healthcare in research participation are at the core of ethical concerns over medical research in developing countries. The governments of many developed countries have invested in initiatives with academic and regulatory organisations in developing countries to increase local capacity for ethical review of research proposals so exploitation of poor economic and educational conditions is reduced. However the role of the profit orientated funders of much of the research in developing countries is crucial to producing long term benefits to the local population, and not just aiding the creation of medicines orientated towards the developed world.

Articles & Reports

The ethics of clinical research in developing countries
A discussion paper in PDF format, published in 2001 by the Nuffield Council on Bioethics, an internationally recognised non-profit making body which identifies, examines and reports on the ethical questions raised by advances in biological and medical research. The report examines the ethical issues surrounding clinical research involving humans in developing countries, especially that sponsored by developed countries. The paper examines existing guidelines and their application and implementation in developing countries, general ethical issues associated with clinical research involving human participants, ethical issues raised by HIV / AIDS vaccine trials, and issues after arising after clinical trials have been completed.
http://www.nuffieldbioethics.org/fileLibrary/pdf/clinicaldiscuss1.pdf

Beyond informed consent
An article (in PDF format) by Zulfiquar Bhutta from the Bulletin of the World Health Organization examining issues surrounding informed consent in human research in developing countries. The paper analyses current guidelines for obtaining consent from a number of international bodies, looking at their controversies, ambiguities and problems. It focuses on externally sponsored research projects, and emphasizes the importance of ensuring true understanding and voluntary participation of research subjects using culturally appropriate methods and sharing of information. It also outlines procedures for documenting the obtaining of truly consent.
http://www.who.int/bulletin/volumes/82/10/en/771.pdf

Consenting adults? Not necessarily….
A news feature by David Cyranoski, the Asian-Pacific correspondent for the journal Nature, which examines the status and level of awareness of the ethical regulations and informed consent procedures for clinical trials in China. The feature reports that despite regulations being put in place in 1999 which meant that clinical trials in the country had to abide by good clinical practice including informed consent, approval of trial protocols by independent IRBs, strict monitoring of ongoing trials, and their enforcement has been weak and patchy. And unlike Western regulations, the Chinese rules contain no detailed guidelines on procedures for recruiting volunteers and ensuring informed consent. Despite these pitfalls, Western companies and scientists are keen to conduct clinical trials in China. Various clinical trials where informed-consent procedures have been neglected including the VGV-1 drug trials are cited. The article has been posted on the SciDev website and is available as a PDF requiring Adobe Acrobat.
http://www.scidev.net/uploads/File//pdffiles/nature/435138a.pdf

Initiatives for developing research ethics capacity

Strategic Initiative for Developing Capacity in Ethical Review (SIDCER)
SIDCER (Strategic Initiative for Developing Capacity in Ethical Review) is a network of independently established regional forums for ethical review committees, which aims to develop global capacity in ethical review and good research practice in biomedical research involving human subjects. The site includes links to regional forums, two publications covering ethical review guidelines and practices, news and events, and SIDCER’s strategic plan, terms of reference, and policy on funding and conflict of interest.
http://www.who.int/sidcer/en/

South African Research Ethics Training Initiative (SARETI)
South African Research Ethics Training Initiative (SARETI) is a comprehensive, multi-disciplinary, Africa-based education and training programme in health research ethics. It is a collaboration between University of KwaZulu-Natal (South Africa), the University of Pretoria (South Africa), and the Berman Bioethics Institute at the Johns Hopkins University (USA). The site includes background information on the need for research ethics training in Africa, and the goals and objectives of the programme. There are overviews of the different training programmes available, a list and brief description of the modules available for study, the educational methods used on the courses, and PDF’s (Adobe Acrobat required) of all the course schedules. There is also an application form in PDF format, list of staff, and useful web links.
http://shsph.up.ac.za/sareti.htm

IRENSA ( International Research Ethics Network for Southern Africa )
IRENSA ( International Research Ethics Network for Southern Africa ) was created by the University of Cape Town Bioethics department as a 4 year program to support bioethics education in international research ethics in Southern Africa, and is funded by John E. Fogarty International Center of the US National Institutes of Health. The site includes information on the the teaching modules, and annual conference, biographical information on faculty members, and application form and selection criteria for the program.
http://www.irensa.org/

South African Research Ethics Training Initiative (SARETI)
South African Research Ethics Training Initiative (SARETI) is a comprehensive, multi-disciplinary, Africa-based education and training programme in health research ethics. It is a collaboration between University of KwaZulu-Natal (South Africa), the University of Pretoria (South Africa), and the Berman Bioethics Institute at the Johns Hopkins University (USA). The site includes background information on the need for research ethics training in Africa, and the goals and objectives of the programme. There are overviews of the different training programmes available, a list and brief description of the modules available for study, the educational methods used on the courses, and PDF’s (Adobe Acrobat required) of all the course schedules. There is also an application form in PDF format, list of staff, and useful web links.
http://shsph.up.ac.za/sareti.htm

Training for Scholarship in Research Ethics University of Malawi College of Medicine Michigan State University
The traineeship in research ethics is a joint project between the University of Malawi Medical College and Michigan State University. The project is aimed at building research ethics capacity in Malawi and other African countries in response to the growing number of clinical trials taking place in Africa. The site contains an overview of the project, its goals, curriculum, evaluation criteria, methods of dissemination for the products of the programme, and project timeline.
http://www.medcol.mw/bioethics/index.html

TRREE Training and Resources for Research Ethics Evaluation for Africa
TRREE-for Africa is “a web-based training and capacity building initiative on the ethics of research involving humans conducted in Africa countries”. It is a collaborative project between European and Developing Countries Clinical Trials Partnership (EDTCP), Swiss Academy of Medical Sciences (SAMS), Commission for Research Partnerships with Developing Countries (KFPE), Canadian Institutes of Health Research (CIHR), Swiss National Science Foundation (SNSF). The site contains information on the projects objective as well as e-Learning resources (in development) and e-Resources, listing web links to information on international, regional and national regulations and policies. There is brief information on the funders, listed above, and a list of the TRREE team of staff. A version of the site is available in French.
http://www.trree.org/site/en_home.phtml

West African Bioethics
A training and research program set up by the College of Medicine, University of Ibadan, in cooperation with the Fogarty International Center, National Heart, Lung and Blood Institute, and the National Human Genome Research Institute, which are all parts of the US National Institutes of Health. The site includes background information on the program, past and current events on African bioethics, links to online resources and a list of faculty members and their interests.
http://www.westafricanbioethics.net/wabcms/

Guidelines & Legislation

World Medical Association Declaration of Helsinki
The Declaration of Helsinki, subtitle Ethical Principles for Medical Research Involving Human Subjects, is an official policy document of the World Medical Association (WMA), the global representative body for physicians. It was first adopted in 1964 (Helsinki, Finland) and revised in 1975 (Tokyo, Japan), 1983 (Venice, Italy), 1989 (Hong Kong), 1996 (Somerset-West, South Africa) and 2000 (Edinburgh, Scotland). The document has an Introduction, Basic Principles for all Medical Research, and Additional Principles For Medical Research Combined With Medical Care sections. The WMA had its first general ssembly in Paris 1947, and now has a membership from around 70 countries. It was created to ensure the independence of physicians, and to work for the highest possible standards of ethical behaviour and care by physicians, at all times.
http://www.wma.net/e/policy/b3.htm

Belmont report: ethical principles and guidelines for the protection of human subjects of research
The Belmont report summaries the ethical guidelines formulated by the National Commission for the Protection of Human Subjects of Biomedical and Behavioural Research in order to help protect human subjects in research. The Commission was signed into law following the National Research Act, 12 July 1974. The report resulted from a four-day discussion period held during February 1976 at the Smithsonian Institution’s Belmont Conference Center supplemented by further deliberations held over four years. The Commission considered the boundaries between biomedical and behavioural research and the practice of medicine and examined the role of assessment of risk benefit criteria in human subject-based research. They also explored appropriate guidelines for the selection of human subjects and reviewed the nature and definition of informed consent. The guidelines were intended for scientists, institutional review board members and Federal employees.
http://www.hhs.gov/ohrp//humansubjects/guidance/belmont.htm

Ethics in Health Research: Principles, Structures and Processes
Published in 2004 by the South African Department of Health. These guidelines cover the national policy on the ethical practice of research. They aim to establish mechanisms for ethical review of research studies conducted on humans, to promote protection of human participants in health research based on international accepted standards, and link research providing long term benefits and with building health care capacity. They are particularly concerned with protecting vulnerable populations, such as children, and those living in poverty and with HIV.
http://www.doh.gov.za/docs/factsheets/guidelines/ethnics/index.html

Guidelines for good practice in the conduct of clinical trials in human participants in South Africa
A working group convened by the Director General of Health in South Africa developed the first edition of these guidelines for good practice in the conduct of clinical trials involving human participants. Their purpose is to ensure that clinical trials are designed according to established scientific and ethical standards within the framework of good clinical practice. The guidelines, which are based on key documents such as the Declaration of Helsinki (October 2000), outline the roles and responsibilities of the various parties involved and focus on the management and regulation of drug trials, not on complementary medicines and non-pharmacological interventions. They were created because of the growth of the clinical trial industry in South Africa (40 per cent increase between 1997 to 1998) and to reduce the risk of unethical treatment which is more likely to happen in poor populations with low levels of literacy, and where the racial-cultural diversity of a country provides the opportunity to investigate racially specific disease traits.
http://www.doh.gov.za/docs/policy/trials/trials_01.html

Discussion Forums

Global Bioethics Blog
A weblog of a collaborative bioethics project entitled ‘Strengthening bioethics capacity and justice in health’ funded by the Fogarty International Center (part of the US governments National Institutes of Health). The project aims to promote research ethics and bioethics in Democratic Republic of Congo and Francophone Africa. Its’ project partners are University of North Carolina-Chapel Hill, Center for Biomedical Ethics, University of Louvain, Belgium, and Kinshasa School of Public Health, Kinshasa, DR Congo . The blog consists of postings on a variety of bioethics related issues and archive of postings by month.
http://globalbioethics.blogspot.com

Global Forum on Bioethics in Research
Global Forum on Bioethics in Research is an informal partnership established by a number of organizations with a shared interest in the ethics of conducting research involving human beings in developing countries. Its aims are to increase protection of research subjects, to provide a forum for developing country perspectives on ethical issues in research, and to enhance ethical review in developing countries. The site contains details of the forthcoming annual forum, and programme details and a report from previous years forums. There are links to the partner organisations and a News & Events section.
http://www.gfbronline.com/

Until the 16th century beavers lived in Scotland. They were hunted to extinction for their fur and for a secretion with supposedly medicinal qualities, but in May this year the Scottish Government announced that it had approved the application by the Scottish Wildlife Trust and the Royal Zoological Society of Scotland to bring the beaver back to Scotland.

More easily said than done. For a start the project partners have to raise £750,000 to support the six-year trial during which up to four beaver families will be brought from Norway to Knapdale Forest, Mid-Argyll. All the animals will spend six months in quarantine and will be fitted with tracking devices before being released. Local volunteers are being sought to help with tracking the animals and monitoring their impact on the local environment.

As environmentalists have learned over the years, any introduction of a species into a new area can be a disaster: the colonisation of the UK’s waterways by mink has helped to wipe out water voles in many areas, and Japanese Knotweed which tends to out-compete our native flora is proving impossible to control. Whilst the reintroduction of a species into its natural ecosystem is fundamentally different, it is still fraught with difficulty and needs very careful control. Hence the setting up in 1988 of the IUCN/SSC Re-introduction Group which has produced guidelines “to ensure that the re-introductions effectively achieve their intended conservation benefit, and do not cause unfavourable environmental side-effects”. The beaver trial will be carefully controlled: the Scottish Government has imposed 31 conditions covering independent monitoring, the impact on protected sites and species, and visitor management.

Details of the websites of the Scottish Beaver Trial and the IUCN/SSC Re-introduction Group are given below, as are records of some other sites dealing with re-introductions into Britain and elsewhere.

Scottish Beaver Trial and IUCN/SSC Re-introduction Group

Scottish Beaver Trial
This site has replaced that of the The Scottish Beavers Network which was a group working for the reintroduction of beavers to Scotland. Since May 2008 when a licence was granted for a six-year trial reintroduction of European Beavers to Knapdale Forest, Mid Argyll, the Network has disbanded in order to support the project which is to be managed by the Scottish Wildlife Trust and the Royal Zoological Society of Scotland. The new website gives some basic information about beavers, details of how the trial will be conducted and news of progress, as well as asking for contributions towards the costs and for local volunteers to help with the fieldwork.
http://www.scottishbeavers.org.uk/

IUCN/SSC : Re-introduction Specialist Group
The Re-introduction Specialist Group of the Species Survival Commission (part of the International Union for the Conservation of Nature) was formed in 1988 in response to the increasing number of re-introduction projects worldwide, and the need for guidelines to assist practioners in conducting viable re-introduction projects. The website gives access to the Group’s newsletter (Re-introduction News), and Policy Guidelines for Re-introductions and for Confiscated Animals, as well as a Re-introduction Practitioners Directory (all downloadable in PDF). All this information is also available on a CD which can be accessed via the website.
http://www.iucnsscrsg.org/

Re-introductions into the British Isles

Great bustard project
This is the online home of the Great Bustard Group, a charity which aims to reintroduce these birds into the British Countryside after an absence of over a hundred years. The Project is a collaborative effort between scientists in Britain and Russia. The website tells you about the history of the project and the research, and provides news and a picture gallery. There is also a plenty of information about the bird itself. A section for members is password protected.
http://www.greatbustard.com/

Rutland ospreys
Home page of the Anglian Water Osprey Project at Rutland Water Nature Reserve, Leicestershire. This project aims to assist the breeding of ospreys in this area of England. The site provides information on osprey (Pandion haliaetus) biology and ecology, the translocation project, satellite tracking and migration. Site visitors can also learn about project updates and view records of recent sightings in England and Wales. There is a section for questions and answers. Project development is supported by the Leicestershire and Rutland Wildlife Trust and Anglian Water.
http://www.ospreys.org.uk/

Golden Eagle Trust Ltd
The Golden Eagle Trust Limited was set up in Ireland in 1999, initially to implement the reintroduction of the Golden Eagle to Ireland, but also the reintroduction of the White-tailed Eagle and the Red Kite. The website, available in English and in Irish, gives the background and objectives of the Trust, and also offers detailed sections on the status, life history and behaviour of each of the target species: Golden Eagle (Aquila chrysaetos), White-tailed Eagle (Haliaeetus albicilla), and Red Kite (Milvus milvus).
http://www.goldeneagle.ie/

The state of Britain’s mammals 2006
Published in September 2006, this is the fifth annual report updating the 2001 MTUK/WildCRU publication – ‘Britain’s Mammals: The Challenge for Conservation’. As in previous updates, the 2006 report covers key themes in mammal conservation from the past year including innovations in mammal monitoring, recent research into managing human-mammal conflict and links between wildlife disease and conservation. The report focuses this year on three groups not covered by BAPs – marine mammals, riparian mustelids and extinct species under consideration for reintroduction.The report was written by Prof. David Macdonald and Dr Sandra Baker. A hardcopy may be obtained from Mammals Trust UK.
http://www.wildcru.org/aboutus/publications/sobm2006.pdf

Accidental re-introduction into the British Isles!

British wild boar
This website is devoted to the free-living wild boar in Britain, and includes video footage of boar living free in Devon. Sections cover the extinction and return of the wild boar in Britain, the distribution and record of alleged sightings, as well as signs of activity, and recorded confrontations between wild boar, people and domestic livestock. Guidance is given on public safety and legislation in regard to wild boar. Other sections deal with academic research, letters and emails and a FAQ’s page. There is also a section on the boar in heraldic and historic images.
http://www.britishwildboar.org.uk/

Re-introductions elsewhere

Amphibian conservation action plan : proceedings IUCN/SSC Amphibian Conservation Summit 2005
Published by The World Conservation Union (IUCN) in 2007, this initial form of the Amphibian Conservation Action Plan (ACAP) is a result of the 2005 IUCN/SSC Amphibian Conservation Summit which was convened in response to the alarming decline in amphibian populations worldwide. The document covers the eleven thematic areas outlining the priorities for conservation and research as relevant to amphibians. These themes include freshwater resources and associated terrestrial landscapes, infectious diseases, over-harvesting and reintroductions. The document also contains the full declaration to the Amphibian Conservation Summit (ACS) and an appendix about genome resource banking.
http://www.iucn.org/dbtw-wpd/edocs/2007-013.pdf

Turtle Survival Alliance
The Turtle Survival Alliance was established in response to the on-going Asian turtle crisis. It supports captive breeding of freshwater turtles and tortoises to conserve species and maintain viable populations for possible future reintroduction programmes. Their website outlines the group’s mission and goals, where they fit into the global conservation effort and includes information about the Taxon Management Group. Other features include the latest edition of the newsletter and a photo gallery.
http://www.turtlesurvival.org/

ASTERS
ASTERS, the ‘Agir pour la Sauvegarde des Territoires et des Espèces Remarquables ou Sensibles’, is responsible for the management of nature reserves in the Haute Savoie and also the reintroduction of the bearded vulture (Gypaetus barbatus). The site provides general information on the vulture and its habits, the reintroduction programme and news. The site is in French and English but not all of the linked items are available in English.
http://www.gypaete-barbu.com/

USGS. Patuxent Wildlife Research Center. Whooping crane report
This site provides a comprehensive guide to the restoration ecology programme at the USGS Patuxent Wildlife Research Center reintroducing a migratory flock of endangered whooping cranes (Grus americana) into North America. The site contains programme updates, FAQ’s covering life history and behaviour and a section on why the cranes are endangered. A photo gallery is available, as well as links to related wildlife conservation resources, video clips and sound files of the crane’s whooping calls (requires the appropriate software).
http://whoopers.usgs.gov/

Ventana Wildlife Society : California condor reintroduction
This section of the website of the Ventana Wildlife Society deals specifically with the reintroduction of the California Condor (Gymnogyps californianus) which became extinct in the wild in 1987. As well as outlining the history of the project there are links to documents about the life history of the condors, their current population size and distribution, their poisoning by ingestion of lead shot, and several photographs. Links are also provided to other sources of information about condors and to videos featuring them.
http://www.ventanaws.org/species_condors/

American buffalo : spirit of a nation
These pages offer a brief history of the American bison, a species that was brought to the edge of extinction in the 1800’s. The introduction looks at how the arrival of Europeans conflicted with the more sustainable Native American way of life, leading to a dramatic decrease in buffalo numbers. Also discussed are the threats that today’s recovering populations of buffalo face. These include the reintroduction of wolves into Yellowstone National Park and conflicts with cattle ranchers. This site complements a television programme broadcast on PBS in the US.
http://www.pbs.org/wnet/nature/buffalo/

Borneo Orangutan Survival UK (BOS)
The home page of the UK branch of the Borneo Orangutan Survival Foundation (BOS), a non-profit organisation which helps sponsor a reintroduction programme for confiscated orang-utans at the Wanariset Station on the island of Borneo. BOS was founded by Dr Willie Smits, tropical forest ecologist and senior advisor to the Minister of Forestry, Indonesia. This site offers general information about the Foundation including its history, current projects and annual reports; anecdotes about individual orang-utans in BOS’s care are also included. Details of the Foundation’s achievements and research are available, with some downloadable Word documents provided. This website targets a general audience with much of its content devoted to fundraising.
http://www.savetheorangutan.org.uk/index.php

Quagga project South Africa
The site describes a South African project which is selectively breeding a population of plains zebras (Equus quagga) in an attempt to reintroduce the quagga (Equus quagga quagga) to its former habitat; the last known living specimen died at Amsterdam Zoo in 1883. The site describes quagga taxonomy and natural history; reasons why it became extinct and the location of quagga specimens in museums around the world. The project is now in its fifteenth year; the site includes project news and also criticisms.
http://www.quaggaproject.org/

Wild wolves
These pages complement the television programme ‘Wild Wolves’ originally broadcast on PBS in 1997. The first section focuses on wolf communication, specifically the howling. You can listen to a range of different wolf howls from a pup howl to a confrontational howl. Each howl can be ‘viewed’ on the accompanying sound spectrograph clip (RealPlayer or QuickTime required). An interview with Ed Bangs, wolf recovery co-ordinator for the US Fish and Wildlife Service, discusses the reintroduction of wolves into the USA. Other features include the transcript of the programme, a teacher’s guide and suggested resources for further reading.
http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/wolves/

Zululand wild dog conservation and management programme
This is the website of the Zululand Wild Dog Conservation and Management Programme, whose main objective is to improve the conservation status of wild dogs in Southern Africa. Information is given about various projects within the programme and about work done within the community. Relevant publications are listed and links to other wild dog – related sites are available. The gallery of photographs and the links to related sites do not appear to be maintained (August 2008) but the publications section is up-to-date.
http://www.geocities.com/michaelsomers/wilddogs/home.html

Recreating habitat

The Wildland Network
The Wildland Network was formally set up in 2005 to further the concepts and development of wildland in Britain. The website states the objectives of the Network and gives details of its management and activities. There is also a detailed section reviewing the definition of wildland and the history of its recognition and protection.
http://www.wildland-network.org.uk/index.htm

Trees for life : [restoring the Caledonian Forest in the Highlands of Scotland]
Trees for Life is a Scottish conservation charity whose primary goal is to regenerate and restore the native Caledonian Forest to a large contiguous area in the Scottish Highlands, and eventually to reintroduce the missing species of wildlife which formerly lived in the old forest…seeking not only to counteract the centuries of deforestation which have led to the almost complete loss of Scotland’s native woodlands, but also to be pioneers in the newly-emerging field of ecological restoration. Information offered includes a description of the Caledonian Forest and its history, the plan of action to restore the forest, accomplishments so far and details of how volunteers can help. Additional components of the site discuss the principles of ecological restoration and offer links to related sites. This site targets a general audience.
http://www.treesforlife.org.uk/

David Bradley Science Writer

Research into the life and times of a worm that lives in soil and rotting vegetation has won three scientists a share of ten million Swedish Kroner (about £690,000) in this year’s Nobel Prize for Medicine. Sydney Brenner worked in Cambridge during the 1960s and did the groundwork for modern biological science. He recognised that a lowly worm could help us understand how cells live and die. His work on the nematode Caenorhabditis elegans has provided researchers with a living model of how cells in organisms mature, differentiate, operate and die.

The body of the nematode worm and our own bodies consist of many different cell types, all originating from a single fertilized egg, which rapidly divides during embryonic development. As the embryo grows its cells mature and begin to specialize, or differentiate, into their different functional forms building up the different tissues and organs in nematode and human alike.

Sydney Brenner

Working in parallel with these growing processes is a third process known as programmed cell death, or apoptosis. Cell death culls unwanted or damaged cells, hollowing out balls of cells to make chambers and vessels, and separating out once-webbed fingers and toes.

Brenner’s masterstroke was to link the analysis of the nematode’s genes with the essential life processes of cell division, differentiation and organ development. John Sulston of The Wellcome Trust Sanger Institute in Cambridge, England, extended this research by mapping every cell division and differentiation in the nematode to every tissue. He showed that specific cells undergo apoptosis. He went on to identify the first genetic mutation inherent in apoptosis.

The Horvitz worm – a C. elegans embryo in which all cells have been caused to initiate programmed cell death (apoptosis). (Image: Brad Hersh and H. Robert Horvitz)

Robert Horvitz of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) in Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA, also built on Brenner and Sulston’s work finding several key genes involved in apoptosis. He figured out how they interact and identified their human counterparts. All three men paved the way for a better understanding of cell processes, which ultimately improve medicine’s approach to diseases such as cancer.

John Sulston

Robert Horvitz

Further reading

Sydney Brenner
http://www.salk.edu/faculty/faculty_details.php?id=7

Wellcome Trust Sanger Institute
http://www.wellcome.ac.uk/Achievements-and-Impact/Initiatives/UK-biomedical-science/Genome-Campus-and-Sanger-Institute/WTD003479.htm

Robert Horvitz
http://www.hhmi.org/research/investigators/horvitz.html

Suggested searches

Nobel prizes

All material in this article is © David Bradley Science Writer and Intute and may not be reproduced without express permission.