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Jane Lunnon

The Roman Emperor Publius Aelius Hadrianus (76-138 AD) personally visited Britain and ordered the building of a massive wall, known to us as Hadrian’s Wall. Constructed between 122 and 130, it runs coast to coast across Britain, from Wallsend-on-Tyne in the east, to Bowness on the Solway Firth in the west.

Changing interpretations

It is an iconic monument, and a World Heritage site, and still the subject of intensive archaeological and historical investigation.

Earlier studies (since the 1890s) focused upon the military aspects of the Wall with its forts and milecastles, and the physical structure. From the 1960s, however, there was a growing awareness of the greater complexity of the Wall’s history, with the apparent changes in design and construction techniques during the building phase, followed by repeated rebuilding and repairs throughout the Roman occupation of Britain.

This Limelight presents a small selection of the ‘Best of the Web’ (reviewed by Intute) – sites that are outstanding starting points for humanities teaching and research. There are also hundreds of others provided in the Related Searches below – many of these sites in turn offer their own lists of links that are worth exploring.

Roman Britain

The function of the Wall is still matter of some debate. Theories revolve around the relative importance of different functions. These include that of military defence against the Picts, or alternatively, control over the movements of people across the frontier, or the Wall may have been primarily a political statement in which it represented the absolute limit of the Roman Empire, and the end of aggressive expansion in favour of stabilisation and consolidation.

The realisation that each fort had its own unique story and character has also added to the continuing fascination with the Wall. There is also an increasing interest in the military operations, such as how the legions were organised, daily life on the Wall, and the relationship of the military with local civilian populations.

Life on the wall

The Vindolanda tablets, Staffordshire Pan and the Rudge cup are arguably the best known from among a wealth of artefacts, the discovery of which have helped to maintain widespread interest in the story of life on the wall. The Vindolanda tablets dating from c.90 to the 120s are the earliest known written records found in Britain and relate to mundane events such as duty rostas, store supplies, leave requests, duty officer reports and even social correspondence between female relatives of army officers. A selection of the tablets are always on show at the British Museum, and the texts can be read online.

Vindolanda Tablets

Continuing archaeological excavations – such as those of the civilian settlements in the vicinity of the Wall at the Arbeia fort, South Shields – have also added significantly to our knowledge of life on the Wall.

Tourism and the wall

Increasing attention is being given to the question of heritage management and conservation. There are several museums and interpretation centres situated along the Wall, while reconstructions continue to be built at various sites such as Arbeia, and events such as Roman army re-enactments attract huge crowds.

Visitor figures to the Wall reach over a million every year, half of these coming not only to visit the museums and forts, but to enjoy walking along the length of the wall. The popularity of the National Path and the establishment of a cycleway along Hadrian’s Wall has led to concerns over erosion and sustainability, all of which has added to the debate over the conservation of this important monument.

Conservation and heritage management

As a UNESCO-designated World Heritage site, (in the care of English Heritage, who have a leaflet available to download as PDF for visitors), the conservation of the Wall is a matter of increasing concern. The difficulties of accommodating the interests of over 50 organisations, 700 private landowners, and the local communities living near the wall, have to be carefully considered. The interests of ecologists, for instance, may conflict directly with those of local landowners, and archaeologists are wary of the effects of tourists eroding sensitive, unprotected sites along the length of the wall. A management plan was devised in 1995 which will be the basis of the protection of this important archaeological monument until 2026.

You may also want to explore:

• These free, ‘teach yourself’ tutorials that lets you practise your Internet Information Skills, Internet for Historians and Internet Archaeologist
• Other Limelights relevant to the study of Hadrian include: Emperor Hadrian : British Museum Exhibition
• And see our Internet Resources for history and for archaeology booklets available to download as a PDF.

Intute would welcome any suggestions you have for additional online resources relevant to this Limelight. Please let us know what other Intute Limelights you would like to see.

Intute records

Vindolanda tablets online | Hadrian’s wall | The Vindolanda trust | Hadrian’s Wall world heritage site: a case study | Romans | Hadrian’s wall | Roman Britain | BBC : history : Romans | Hadrian’s Wall country | Per lineam valli : online atlas of Hadrian’s Wall | Tales of the frontier : political representations and practices inspired by Hadrian’s Wall |

Suggested searches

Roman Britain | Hadrian’s Wall | Vindolanda | Roman military sites |

Jane Lunnon

One of the most intriguing of the Roman Emperors was Publius Aelius Hadrianus (76 – 138 AD). This extraordinary man is the subject of a major exhibition at the British Museum – Hadrian: Empire and Conflict which will run from 24 July to 26 October 2008.

One of the great Roman Emperors?

The historical verdict on Emperor Hadrian and his rule (117-138 AD) is mixed – on the one hand he can be regarded as a learned scholar and philosopher, a patron of the arts and a poet, with a love of Greek culture, actively promoting the flourishing of a Graeco-Roman culture. He reformed the legal code, and eradicated the worst features of slavery. A successful military commander, he consolidated and stabilised the Empire’s frontiers. He also built boundary walls and frontier fortifications in Africa and Germany, establishing a period of peace after the aggressive expansion of his predecessor, Emperor Trajan (98-117). Hadrian personally travelled around the Empire [for further information read Ronald Syme's Journeys of Hadrian, from Zeitschrift für Papyrologie und Epigraphik 73 (1988) 159–170 available to download as a PDF], attending to the concerns of the army and provincial officials, which gained him their deep loyalty. He is also renowned as the builder of some of the most impressive classical buildings which can still be seen today – including the Pantheon in Rome and the Adriana Villa in Tivoli – which mark the beginning of a golden age of classical architecture. In the UK he is best-known for ordering the building of Hadrian’s Wall, which was constructed between 122 and 130, along a 73 mile stretch from Wallsend-on-Tyne in the east, to Bowness on the Solway Firth in the west.

Alternative views of Hadrian

While the achievements of the Emperor are lauded by many classicists, others view him as a less attractive historical figure, essentially a vain, tyrannical emperor. Hadrian is still an enigma and has been reassessed many times over the centuries. He often argued with the scholars of his own day, arrogantly asserting his own superiority in philosophical debates. In his later years he conducted a reign of political terror against his opponents in the Senate. But most infamously, he viciously suppressed a Jewish revolt in 132 (also known as the Second Jewish Revolt, or the Bar Kochba Revolt), and continued persecuting the Jews, in an attempt to eradicate their religion.

For many historians, the most intriguing aspect of Hadrian was his homosexual relationship with his teenage lover, Antinous. His grief when the young man was drowned in 130 was all-consuming, and resulted in the creation of the religious cult of Antinous-Osiris.

Hadrian; Empire and Conflict

All these themes are explored in the British Museum’s exhibition, which will include not only artefacts from its own Roman Empire and Roman Britain collections, but also items on loan from 31 countries. Exhibits will include a poignant relic of the Jewish rebellion so brutally suppressed by Hadrian – a set of house keys found hidden in a cave in Israel, left by people fleeing the aftermath of the rebellion. One tattered piece of papyrus, the only surviving fragment of Hadrian’s autobiography, will also be in the exhibition. From the British Museum’s own collection, the Vindolanda tablets will be on display to provide a tantalizing glimpse into life on Hadrian’s Wall. There will also be loans from other museums, including the Louvre, and the Vatican. Important sculptures on show will include portraits both of Hadrian’s wife, Sabina, and his lover, Antinous, as well as Hadrian himself.

As a prequel to the main exhibition in London, a 2nd Century bronze bust of Hadrian, never before seen outside London, was displayed at two museums which are located at either end of Hadrian’s Wall. The bust was exhibited in Tullie House, Carlisle (February-April 2008) and at Segedunum Roman Fort and Museum at Wallsend (April-June 2008). This bronze head was found in the River Thames in 1834 and probably came from a statue, one and a quarter life size, which may have been erected in London in 122 to commemorate Hadrian’s visit to Britain.

This Limelight presents a small selection of the ‘Best of the Web’ (reviewed by Intute) – sites that are outstanding starting points for humanities teaching and research. There are also hundreds of others provided in the Related Searches below – many of these sites in turn offer their own lists of links that are worth exploring.

Emperor Hadrian’s legacy

Second Jewish Revolt 132 A.D.

The Roman Empire and Emperors

Vindolanda Tablets

You may also want to explore:

• These free, ‘teach yourself’ tutorials that lets you practise your Internet Information Skills, Internet for Historians and Internet Archaeologist
• Other Limelights relevant to the study of Hadrian include: Hadrian’s Wall
• And see our Internet Resources for history and for archaeology booklets available to download as a PDF.

Intute would welcome any suggestions you have for additional online resources relevant to this Limelight. Please let us know what other Intute Limelights you would like to see.

Intute records

Rome : Republic to Empire | Villa Adriana | Hadrian’s Wall country | De imperatoribus Romanis : an online encyclopedia of Roman emperors | Vindolanda tablets online | The Vindolanda trust | Western Oregon University History department: Senior seminar papers | Pantheon project : Karman Center |

Suggested searches

Roman | Hadrian, Emperor of Rome, 76-138 | Vindolanda |

This page has been created as a complement to the Internet resources for archaeology booklet – a 12-page printed guide to the best of the Web for archaeology. On this page you can find links to the sites listed in the booklet. A printable version of the booklet is available as a PDF-file.

Content

• Subject Gateways
• Learning and teaching
• Data services and sets
• Organisations
• Electronic journals and texts
• Bibliographies and citations
• Standards and practice
• Subject news and discussion lists
• Miscellany

Subject Gateways

A subject gateway functions as a point of entry to other websites and as such is a good place to start when exploring the Internet.

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Learning and teaching

This section draws together resources of particular use in learning and teaching, from organisations to online interactive materials.

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Data services and sets

Electronic access to large (and often previously inaccessible) collections of data.

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Organisations

This section presents the websites of a selection of archaeology-related organisations.

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Electronic journals and texts

Many scholarly, peer-reviewed journals are now freely available electronically.

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Bibliographies and citations

Online bibliographies offer quick and convenient access to information about secondary sources.

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Standards and practice

This section provides suggestions of where to find information online about archaeological good practice.

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Subject news and discussion lists

The following resources represent excellent ways of keeping in touch with your subject community.

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Miscellany

This section contains a miscellany of websites – with an emphasis on world archaeology and individual projects.

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Intute records

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Archaeology |

This page contains a selection of some of the most useful websites for students, lectures and researchers of Egyptology. In this selection you will find introductory sites that are good as a starting point for the generally interested as well as specialised sites useful for researchers and advanced students. This list is by no means exhaustive but may give you a flavour of the resources available. Reviews of these resources and many others can be found in our Egyptology sections under classics and archaeology.

Content

• Images and General Information
• Museums
• Archaeological Expeditions
• Departments and Projects
• Gender in Ancient Egypt
• Bibliographies and Databases
• Journals
• Miscellaneous

Images and General Information

This section contains sites that have many images or contain general information about ancient Egypt and Egyptology. This is a good starting point for the generally interested.

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Museums

These are links to museums with collections of ancient Egyptian artefacts or with exhibitions specialised in Egyptology.

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Archaeological Expeditions

This section contains online reports and information about archaeological expeditions to Egypt and surrounding areas.

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Departments and Projects

These are links to the homepages of university departments specialised in Egyptology or related subjects and projects within the subject area.

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Gender in Ancient Egypt

Sites dedicated to the study of gender in Ancient Egypt.

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Bibliographies and Databases

This section contains links to online bibliographies and databases with information of interest to Egyptologists.

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Journals

These are links to journals within the area of Egyptology or related subjects.

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Miscellaneous

This section contains a miscellany of websites that are of interest to anyone interested in the subject area.

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Intute records

Suggested searches

Egyptology |

By Andrea Vianello

Anthropomorphic and therianthropic figurines were contemporary to cave art and one of the earliest is an Aurignacian (around 30,000 years ago) ivory carving representing a figure part human and part lion (Löwenmensch) that has been found at the Hohle Fels Cave in southwestern Germany, similar to one from the nearby site of Hohlenstein-Stadel. These figurines have been interpreted as a tool used in some form of shamanism. The Palaeolithic “Venuses” become the first evidence of standardised production in art around 25,000 years ago. These figurines were used for multiple purposes, including as pendants. They portray naked females with certain attributes exaggerated and have been variously interpreted as representations of some “mother goddess”, allusions to fertility, art, or a form of communication among different peoples sharing a similar culture. This last interpretation highlights the considerable distance travelled by some figurines. All of these interpretations may be correct, as they all aid in recognising the bearer of the object as a member of one shared culture at a time when few objects could serve that purpose.

The tradition of depicting naked females continues into the Bronze Age, and it is in the Aegean region that symbolic representations of females become truly art, which was recognised and appreciated as such already in antiquity. Cycladic marble figurines appear in large quantities in the region and there is also a contemporary class of pottery which mimics the human figure with female genitalia, the “Syros type frying pan”.

The suggested links point to resources concentrating on some specific sites and classes of materials. Some resources contain several sub-topics and the links do not always open at the relevant page.

(Image from original photograph from H. Jensen; © Universität Tübingen).

We would welcome any suggestions you have for additional online resources relevant to this Limelight. Also please let us know what other Intute Limelights you would like to see.

Intute records

Digmaster figurine database | Great archaeological sites | Art history resources on the Web | Underwater archaeology | Pervobytnoe iskusstvo | Mothers of time : Palaeolithic figurines from the Louis Alexandre Jullien collection | Groveart | Images of women in ancient art : issues of interpretation and identity | Hohle Fels : Aurignacian ivory carvings | The prehistoric archaeology of the Aegean |

Suggested searches

Palaeolithic | figurines | Aurignacian | Gravettian | Venus | Cycladic |

Archaeology and the Aggregates Levy Sustainability Fund (ALSF): Data Integration and Dissemination

Every year many thousands of tons of aggregates (sands and gravels) are extracted from sites all over the UK, aggregates are used extensively in the construction industry in things like concrete and road surfaces. Aggregate deposits are well known to contain a host archaeological sites, many of which are destroyed by the extraction process. Of course, prior to their destruction every effort is made to have these sites investigated by professional archaeologists. Much of this work is funded by the Aggregates Levy Sustainability Fund (ALSF) set up by DEFRA specifically for this purpose.

The Aggregates Levy Sustainability Fund (ALSF) was introduced in April 2002, initially as a two year pilot scheme, to provide funds to tackle a wide range of problems in areas affected by aggregates extraction. English Heritage, along with English Nature and the Countryside Agency (now Natural England), and the Centre for Environment, Fisheries and Aquaculture Science (CEFAS), is a major distributor of the fund on behalf of the Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs (DEFRA). The core objective of the English Heritage ALSF Programme is to reduce the impact on the historic environment of aggregate extraction, both terrestrial and marine.

But what happens to all the results of the investigations? The Archaeology Data Service (ADS) based at the University of York is currently undertaking a year-long project to disseminate the large amounts of archaeological information generated by the ALSF on the web. The aim of the project is to disseminate and secure for the long term a key set of research and management documents produced for English Heritage by a wide range of ALSF funded projects. The ADS site currently has results from about 25% of the completed projects available for researchers to examine and when the project is complete there will be around 200 project archives available.

The links below take you the Intute records for the major partners in the ALSF project

Intute records

Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs : Defra | Archaeology data service (ADS) | English heritage |

Suggested searches

gravel extraction | historic environment | Archaeology | cultural heritage |

By Andrea Vianello

Cave art is one of the latest cultural innovations of the Palaeolithic era, as well as one the oldest that contemporary humans can fully appreciate. Pablo Picasso after exiting Lascaux cave is reported to have said, “We have invented nothing”. Cave art is not the first form of art: plastic and possibly symbolic art were already practised for thousands of years when the first images were painted at Chauvet cave 32,400 years ago. Cave art sites are known across all continents, though the oldest and some of the most suggestive examples are found in continental Europe. Hands, animals and humans are often depicted; hunting scenes can be recognised. Cave art probably was a religious practice, a powerful way to communicate with superior beings and the natural world to ask relief from ailments or success in hunting. Altered states of consciousness may have been provoked in certain instances before painting took place and therefore it seems possible that some of the earliest painters were travelling shamans. However, some aesthetic appreciation may have also played some role considering that other forms of art were practised and the apparent harmony and beauty of the depictions. Caves were often used as temporary repairs, permanent dwellings or as burial grounds, and have yielded most archaeological evidence of the Palaeolithic period. The listed links provide information about some important caves with Palaeolithic paintings and their importance in art history.

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(Image from original photograph by Patrick Gruban taken at Illizi, DZ, Tassili National Park, Algeria, some rights reserved under the Attribution-ShareAlike 2.0 licence).

Intute records

The astonishing creativity of prehistoric people | Arte en Cantabria | Pervobytnoe iskusstvo | The cave of Lascaux | La grotte Chauvet-Pont-d'Arc |

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Cave art | Palaeolithic period | Prehistoric art |

25 May 2007: The British Museum, London

Organised by the Historic Environment Information Resources Network and supported by the AHRC ICT Methods Network and The British Museum, this one-day conference takes a comprehensive look at exciting new opportunities for disseminating and integrating historic environment data using portal technologies and Web 2.0 approaches. Bringing together speakers from national organisations, national and local government and academia, options for cooperation at both national and international levels will be explored.

The aims of the conference are as follows:

• To raise awareness of current developments in the online dissemination of Historic Environment Data
• To set developments in the historic environment sector in a wider national and European information context
• To raise awareness of current portal and interoperability technologies
• To create a vision for a way forward for joined up UK historic environment information provision

After the event all presentation materials and an audio recording of the meeting will be available from the AHRC ICT Methods Network website.

The links below take you the Intute records for the major supporters and contributors for this event

Intute records

Council for British Archaeology : internet information service | British Museum | AHRC ICT Methods Network | Archaeology data service (ADS) | HEIRNET : historic environment information resources network |

Suggested searches

Historic environment | Cultural heritage | Portals |

By Tim Machin

Since at least the 5th Century BCE, with the seven wonders of the world, lists have been compiled of places which exemplify outstanding human achievements or the glories of nature. A modern successor is the list of World Heritage Sites. Including over 800 hundred locations ranging from caves to cities, thatched huts to palaces, forests to canyons, these have been nominated by signatories to the 'UNESCO Convention concerning the Protection of the World's Cultural and Natural Heritage' since 1972. Listing is not automatic – countries must pro-actively nominate sites to UNESCO’s World Heritage Committee.

Sites are assessed against ten criteria, and must meet at least one, which evaluate their cultural, aesthetic or natural significance. Places on the list range from the obvious (Stonehenge, the Pyramids, the Great Barrier Reef) to the less well known (the Tombs of the Bugandan kings at Kasubi, the post war buildings of Le Harve, France).

Listing includes no statutory protection – but the raised profile of the site, and pressure from UNESCO (which can add a site to its endangered list and theoretically de-list it) has largely ensured the protection of these sites. Sites can be threatened for many reasons -from war and its effects (refugees and poaching at Virunga national park in the Democratic Republic of Congo) to commercial interests (such as mining at Yellowstone in the United States) and World heritage status can swing the balance, or at least, in the Congo’s case, mitigate the effects.

However, listing can prove a mixed blessing. On one hand the addition of a site to this list of global must sees can stimulate tourist revenues and bring income to communities and aid conservation in the poorest parts of the globe. On the other hand, increased visitor numbers and resistance to international ‘interference’ can put pressure on fragile locations. Having said this, the popularity of World Heritage listing sees no signs of abating with the UK alone having nominated 27 locations since 1999 (17 of these still on the tentative list, to be considered).

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Intute records

Seven wonders of the ancient world | ICOMOS international council on monuments and sites | Unesco : the World Heritage List |

Suggested searches

Ironbridge | Great Barrier Reef | Stonehenge | UNESCO | World Heritage Sites | heritage | conservation | pyramids | cathedrals | national parks | castles |

By Andrea Vianello

Archaeology as a discipline concentrates on the study of ancient material evidence, which often does not include any direct evidence of ritual or entertaining performances. Yet, anthropological studies and indirect evidence confirm that performances were central to ancient human beings. As a result, archaeologists are removing the biases caused by the uneven preservation of material evidence and accepting that performances were an important part of the past. Ancient performances made use primarily of symbolic gestures, music and dance. Entertaining performances normally differ from rituals because they are based on an explicit plot whereas rituals are founded on symbolic meanings. Theatre was the most common form of entertaining performance in historical times, and this included music and pantomime in the performances.

The suggested links refer to resources presenting the theoretical debate within archaeology, resources about specific evidence of performances in antiquity and general resources on the study of performances.

(Image from original photograph by elbisreverri; some rights reserved under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 2.5 licence.)

Intute records

Early Music FAQ | Theatre history on the web : a resource for theatre historians and students of the theatre’s history | Classical musical instruments | Archaeology and performance | Ancient Greek theatre | World of mime theatre | Theatre Museum : national museum of the performing arts | The archive of performances of Greek and Roman drama (APGRD) | Egypt antiquities and ancient Egypt | Roman musical instruments | Early harp history : thousands of years of fascination for the harp | Skenotheke : images of the ancient stage | Roman theatre and drama |

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ritual theatre | ancient theatre | ancient music |